Author: Dr Meruert Abusseitova, Department of Oriental Source Studies, History and Culture of the East, Institure of Oriental Studies, Almaty, Kazakhstan
The history has kept man pondering for quite long. This is even more true when one is to study of nomadic history and culture, where the answers are cloaked by the laws and traditions of the great steppe.
The history of Kazakhstan and especially the history of statehood of Kazakhstan is one that encompasses a number of great epochs and formed by wars, sensitive diplomatic relations, deeply rooted traditions, balance of power and trade cooperation.
Unfortunately recent researches assessed historic events with big deal of tendency or treated particular problems going way beyond the framework of historical science and even beyond the history of nations and ethnos of Eurasia.
Currently historical science faces paramount problems requiring new approaches for their resolution, new understanding of the historical process and creation of a new historical thinking, approach to the study of the problems of state system, nomadic period, problems of contact of nomadic and settled cultures, their history and culture. This was implemented in the research which I have the honor to present.
Prologue to the Emergence of Kazakh Khanate.
The question of emergence of the Kazakh khans dynasty and inter-relative relationships between them cannot be answered without examining the history of Golden Orda and state institutions, that developed on the ruins of the latter. There are a lot of historical sources which disclose the genealogy of Djuchi descendants, predecessors of Kazakh khans. The issues concerning the collapse of Golden Orda, the struggle for power between Djuchi descendants, the actions of Abulkhair khan and the emergence of Kazakh khanate are described differently in historical schools.
It is known that the formation of Kazakh khanate is connected to the struggle between Djuchids during the epoch of collapse of Golden Orda. It is necessary to point out that it were only the descendants of Hsaiban and Tuka-Tumur, who fought for the “summum imperium”. By that time the descendants of Orda-Edjen had already stepped off the historical arena. However, this circumstance was not clearly described in the historical sources, which, in turn, led to erroneous assignation of some historical figures of XIV-XV centuries to the descendants of Orda-Edjen.
Sources
Written Persian, Turkic and Chinese sources are main on the history of Kazakshtan 15–18 centuries. The history of Desht-I Kipchak, Djetysu, Maverannahr, Eastern Turkestan is closely connected with each other. This is the history of important social phenomena of 15-18 centuries caused by internal and external factors of economic development.
By our opinion the historical sources can be divided into two groups: the internal one and the external one.
The external sources are those written by the authors of the neighboring countries of Central Asia as well as Near, Middle and Far East. They were written in Persian, Arabic, Chinese etc. In the period under our study the Islamic historical tradition considerably influenced the perception of history by Inner Asia’s Turkic ethnoses. However, this tradition is known to be highly biased, describing the historical past in one-sided manner, and hence appears as some alien view on the history in the eyes of non-nomads.
The internal sources are those that come out of own historical tradition of the Central Asian peoples. This kind of sources can also be divided into two groups: 1) those written sources that had been formed out during various periods and in various sites of Turkic world; 2) those that are still passed on only in oral form.
Concerning the first group of the internal sources, the works that were written on the basis of oral historical tradition of certain clan and tribal units of that time such as “Chinghiz-namah” by Utemish-hajji, «Jami‘ al-tawarikh» by Qadir-‘Ali Jala’iri, «Shajara-yi turk» by Abu’l-Ghazi Bahadur-khan can be mentioned. While the historical legends (qara-söz), the tribal genealogies (shejire), the heroic eposes (dastan) and the elegies dedicated to certain heroes (zhoqtau) etc., can be included into the second group.
There is a special group of written sources on the history of Central Asian Turkic nomads – the sources which brought to us an oral nomadic historical knowledge. This entered into scientific use in the term of a “steppe oral historiography”, or a “steppe oral historiology”.
Based on an unique information – data of the very individual subject on the history of his own past – the steppe oral historiology has not less, and sometimes even more important value for understanding of social-and-political processes. Here should be emphasized the ultimate importance of oral tradition in compare with written testimonies, as oral tradition have been entirely proved by written sources or, that is even more important, by the state principles of newly created formations. “Chinghiz-namah” contains the important data on political institutes of the medieval Central Asian states. Among them khans as possesors of the supreme political authority, oghlans and beks are mentioned. Among the various political structures the majlises – assemblies of Chinghisids and patrimonial nobles – played a special role. It also should be mentioned that nobody would call in question the conclusions that sources of actually Turkic origin, among which oral legends, heroic epos and shajara prevailed, have a decisive role in studying of the history and culture of these nations.
According to the opinion that has being developed by the great and unfortunately quite underestimated Kazakh scholars such as Mashhur-Jusip Kopeyev the oral historical tradition is very important for reconstructing a more objective and vivid history of Central Asian nomadic word. They think that, although the written historical sources of the neighboring sedentary people play a key role in making out the outline of the history of Central Asia, but those sources don not always reveal the inner process of the formation of the Central Asian nomadic society, of their culture and their value.
The statehood of Turkic nomads was characterized by presence of traditional ways of management and military-administrative system of historical predecessors of Chingizids empire.
It is reasonably interesting to note that ancient Mongolian custom of election of the new khan was kept approximately in the same form among Kazakhs and Uzbeks of Central Asia up to the end of XIX century.
One may get the perception of the way how ancient Turik nomads identified themselves. Their thinking were majorly influenced by a single concept of “Birtutas Turki Eli” (Unified Turkic State), which emerged as far back as the time of unification under a blue banner of Turks-commanders and rulers – Kutlug, Bil’ge-kagan, Kjul’-tegin, Ton’jukuk, and later continued by such thinkers as Balasaguni, Jasavi, Kashgari, Nava’i.
Recent discoveries and complex studies of historical sources, comparative analysis of various information lead to reconsideration of the real character of historical events. During the most recent oriental archeographical expeditions in 2004-2008 to foreign archives, funds, libraries and museums conducted with the aid of the “Cultural Heritage” State Program we have acquired unique materials which have created a solid base for a large group of researchers to reconstruct the ancient and medieval history of the Kazakh nation.
From 2004 till 2008, the oriental archeological researches were conducted under the “Cultural Heritage” State Program in Russian Federation, China, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey, Armenia, Hungary, France and Switzerland. The results of those archeological expeditions were included into a number of books published under the Program. They have created a solid base for a large group of researchers to reconstruct the ancient and medieval history of the Kazakh nation. It is intended to use different points of view and encompass new information from well and less known sources. At the same time it is planned to use information from different historical and literary works that Kazakh historical science was not familiar with earlier and that represent special value for studying the formation of a national idea and spiritual culture of the Kazakh nation. This is the first time, when a definite complex of historical sources, which reflect all the stages of historical development and cultural traditions of the Kazakh nation is introduced.
The materials acquired during last oriental archeological expeditions in 2004-2008 from foreign archives, funds, libraries and museums are unique. During the first period (2004-2006) there was a series of books published, including “The History of Kazakhstan in Persian Sources” (5 volumes), “The History of Kazakhstan in Turkic Sources” (5 volumes), “The History of Kazakhstan in Chinese Sources” (5 volumes), “The History of Kazakhstan in Mongolian Sources” (3 volumes), “The History of Kazakhstan in Arabic Sources” (3 volumes). At present we are preparing to publish new books under the “Cultural Heritage” State Program.
Thanks to the “Cultural Heritage” State Program, Kazakh historians had discovered unique documents in The First Historical Archives of China, including 300 in Chaghatay and Chinese languages and more importantly more than 3000 in Manchurian, containing official letters of Kazakh Khans and Sultans addressed to the rulers of bordering regions, and information on diplomatic ties and trade between Kazakhs and Chinese. We have also discovered numerous documents containing information on diplomatic relations of Kazakhs with Chinese, Russians, Kyrgyz, Kokands and Oirats, as well as other information on everyday life and tradition of past Kazakhs. These unique archives prove that Kazakh rulers had their own chancellery and that they were active participants of diplomatic relations exchanging correspondence and ambassadors.
A wide range of materials on the history of trade, trade routes and expeditions to the Kazakh steppe reaffirm the fact that Kazakhstan was a connecting link, a bridge of mutual influence and mutual enrichment between Western and Eastern cultures. It would be utterly wrong to neglect the great importance of Western travellers for studying of the history of our region.
In this presentation a new approach to the study of Kazakh statehood is suggested. New evidence allowed us to reinterpret the history and to acquire more information on political, social, cultural events and we tried to reconstruct the main stages of the history of Kazakh society.
In most oriental writings which describe the historical events of the Kazakh Khanate the terms “mamlakat-i Kazakh”, “ulus-i Kazakh”, “doulat-i Kazakh” are very common.
In connection with it, important data of oriental writings were examined about the state of khan power and its relations with aristocracy, the form of entitling the right for city management, about monetary reform, legislation of khans, spread of Islam and land grants of Juibar Sheikhs to Kazakh khans and sultans.
Kazakh Khanate and the First Rulers
15-17 cenrures – the time of appearance of Great powers such as Ottoman’s, Sefevid’s Impires, the state of Great Mogols, of the Shaibanids, Ashtarkhanids, Kazakh Khanate and etc. In the mid XV century Kerei and Jhanibek, having united many Djuchids and dependant tribes under their rule, took them to Mogulistan. The departure of kazakh Kerei and Zhanibek had been a very important part of the political chain, that led to formation of Kazakh Khanate. Information on this point first appeared in “Tarikhi-Rashidi”.
Muhammad Khaidar in his “Tarikhi-Rashidi” states the following: at that time the Desht-i-Kypchak was ruled by Abulkhair Khan. Zhanibek and Kerei Khan ran from him to Mogulistan. He caused many trouble to sultans of Djuchi origin. Isan-Buga Khan greeted them with respect and gave them the regions of Shu and Kozy-Bashi, that laid in the west Mogulistan. While they prospered there, the Uzbek ulus became disorganized after the death of Abulkhair Khan. A lot of conflicts emerged. Most of his subjects went to Kerei Khan and Zhanibek Khan and the number of people who gathered around them had reached two hundred thousands. They were called uzbek-kazakhs. The beginning of the Kazakh Sultan reign is eight hundred seventieth year (870 year by Khidjira = 1465//1466 – M.A.), but the Allah knows better”[1].
The formation of Kazakh khanate was not connected exceptionally to the move of Kerei and Jhanibek. It was conditioned by the economical, social and political development of Kazakhstan in middle ages and by some particularities of the ethnical history of Kazakhs. From the second half of XV century to the beginning of the XVI century the name of “Kazakh” appeared: “in the end of the XV century the word “Kazakh” acquires a political meaning. It was used to describe some feudal possessions, created by the descendants of Barak, i.e. Zhanibek. Kerei, Burundyk. From the beginning if XVI century, after a part of nomadic tribes led by Sheibani Kahn moved from the territtory of contemporary Kazakhstan to Mauverranakhr, the term “kazakh” starts to become more ethnic”[2].
The end of XVI-XVII is a very special period in the history of Kazakhstan. It was the time of strengthening of the Kazakh statehood, the time of active political, military, cultural relations and trade with neighboring states and nations. At that time the Kazakh ruled Tashkent, Turkestan, Sauran, Andijan, that were permanently fought for by Kazakh khans and Ashtakhanids. This period is the Renaissance in the history of Kazakh Khanate.
The sources contain evidence on the status of the khan’s authority and his relations with the aristocracy. For instance, it now has become clear that such measures as monetary reforms were conducted in order to strengthen the authority of the khan. The money circulation had a positive effect on the strengthening of khanate power and encouraged trade relations with neighboring countries and ethnic groups. The money circulation had a positive affect on the strengthening of khanate power and encouraged trade connections with neighbour countries and nations. From 16th c. the role of capitals as state centers of coining money had been rising (for instance coinage of Tursun-Muhammed-khan, Tauekel-khan etc.)
The legislation of Kasym-khan, Hakk-Nazar-khan, Ishim-khan and Tauke-khan were aimed at the development of statehood and at strengthening of internal foundations of Kazakh society
Through this research the history of diplomatic relations of the Kazakh Khanate with neighboring countries was also reconstructed on the basis of information contained in oriental sources and materials from archives
The analysis of different categories of manuscripts, deeds, stamps, titled coins lead to interesting conclusions. For instance, based on Persian, Turkic and Chinese writings we have investigated the external policy of Kazakh khans, and this resulted in the conclusion that Kazakh khans were actively involved in international politics and used all means and methods of peaceful settlement of international disputes through bilateral treaties, international agreements, dynastic marriages, negotiations, embassies, and etc.
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The dissemination of Islam during this period is considered to be factor which brought to strengthening of authority of a khan. In particular, Djuybar sheikhs played a significant role in a political life of the Kazakh society in XVI-XVII centuries, and supported Kazakh khans in all state affairs. The knowledge about the ideology of the Kazakh society in XVI-XVII centuries, its shaman views and cults, the ways of penetration and dissemination of Islam and activity among Kazakhs of Central-Asian Sufist orders, the quests of a refuge in nomads’ camps of Kazakh khans by Central-Asian sheikhs, and the fact that Kazakhs were Murids of Central-Asian sheikhs are of a great significance in the Oriental historical materials. The Kazakh khans carried out an active policy of taking a loyal position concerning some Sufist Orders, supporting them in a counterbalance with others, basing on and using them for their purposes. We even know the name of a religious figure from the environment of Kazakhs of XVI century Maulan Muhammad Kazakh Rabateghi (“Syradg al-Salkiman” Muhammad Rakim).
The Central Asian Sufist peers and their agents acted as missionaries of Islam. They pursued the purpose of increasing a number of Murids and their incomes.
A number of hagiographic compositions contain significant materials that describe the life of peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, their clan-tribe structure, beliefs, political history, tell about missionary activity of Hoja Ishac who preached Sufist doctrines of Nashbandija order among the Kazakhs. The Islamization of Kazakhs promoted strengthening of the union of Kazakh governors with spiritual and secular Central-Asian representatives on ideological basis. It is known, for example, that in 1512 future well-known Djuybar sheikh Islam escaped from Babur and Kyzylbash to Kazakh khan Kasym and stayed with him for a quite long time.[3] However, after Babur was defeated, and the rest of Kyzylbash ran from Maverannakhr, and rumors about them began to fade, Hoja Islam went back to Buchara. At this time, a nephew of Muhammad-Shaban-khan, who defeated Babyr and Kyzylbash and became the governor of Bukhara, sent ambassadors to Kasym to ask for his’ daughter hand. Kasym-khan agreed to send his daughter to Buchara under the charge of Hoja Islam. That was when Hoja returned to his homeland.
We found and investigated a number of documents on sale and purchase of land and on the lands granted by descendants of Djuybar sheikhs. Documents of later period from the archives of Khivin khans that present full material on landed property and taxation of Kazakhsare of great value. Such documents contain lists of Kazakhs covering 1200 farms and facilities, data about property, social and clan-tribe structure of tax bearers; distribution of the population in separate areas, and their number.[4]
As we have already specified, Djuybar sheikhs played a significant role in a political life of the society of that time, and had a large influence among Murids. An English traveler A. Jenkins who visited Buchara in 1559 told about political influence of a powerful head of Buchara clergy. He wrote: “ In Buchara, there is a spiritual head. He is listened to more than a king. He can displace a king and put another by his will and desire”.[5]
For example, undertaking campaign to Central Asia in 1598-1599 Taukel-khan relied not only on weapons; he counted on certain social layers of the population of Central Asia that rendered him support when he needed it. Muhammad Avaz in his “Ziya al-kulub” tells about aspiration of Taukel to win inclination of Central-Asian Sufist peers of Nakshbandija order, in order to get further support.
Many experts consider that in XV-XVI centuries, shamanism and various pagan cults were disseminated among Kazakhs, and Islam was not distributed widely yet. It is quite fair in general, but it is also necessary to specify that Islam took roots first in the environment of the Kazakh khans and sultans. Acceptance of Islam should prove that Kazakh khans searching for strong social support in the face of influential Moslem clergy and Sufist corporations.
“Ziya al-kulub” informs that Sufist gobs were interested in expansion of sources of their incomes, conducted active propaganda of doctrines among nomads-Kazakhs, and called them to be Murids. The fact that Kazakh Muhammad who preached Sufism among Kazakhs and Kyrgyz was among followers of Nakshbandija sheikh Lutfuli Chusti (he was killed in 1571/72) proved propaganda to be successful. This message is contained in the Life of Lutfuli Chusti.[6] These terrestrial cares forced spiritual leaders of Sufist corporations to develop good relations with Kazakh khans and sultans and help them.
XVI-XVII centuries represent a special period in history of Kazakhstan: time of the strengthening of Kazakh statehood, active political, trade, and cultural relations between Kazakhs and neighboring countries and peoples.
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The history of Kazakh people in 15-18 centuries in close and many-sided contacts with nations of Central Asia, the ways of their development, war conflicts were interrelated in the periods of cooperation.
They were expressed both external political relations and in mutual exchange trade. The interesting material on the history of trade, trade ways, expeditions to steppe regions proves that Kazakhstan was a connection, bridge on the way of interaction and mutual enrichment of cultures of the East and the West. In 16-18 centuries political and trade relations of Kazakhstan with khanates of Middle Asia, India, Afghanistan, Russia were expanded, the exchange of trade and diplomatic embassies was made. The exchange of embassies between Kazakhstan and these countries presented essentially a form of trade relations. Archaeological sources state that interstate and transit trade required a great amount of money of currency metals, i.e. silver and gold[7]. In 12 century the route from China to the West through Semirechiye and Southern Kazakhstan which was included into the orbit of the Great Silk Road became very brisk.
At present much attention is paid to the study of the Great Silk Road which crossed the territory of Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Moreover, starting from the second half of XYI this way got a new impulse of life. Written sources of 16-18 state that trade routes connecting China, India and Central Asia also crossed Kazakhstan; pilgrims and military groups passed through. Trade was made both by Caspian Sea between Astrahan and Mangyshlak and by land through the northern coast of the Caspian Sea, Buhara and Hiva. However, the information on the level and items of the trade in eastern sources are not available.
Nevertheless, the available information of eastern authors allows saying about regularity of trade relations. Actually, trade between Kazakh and neighboring nations was continuous even in times of discords and wars though the latter circumstance strongly hindered its development. Seid Aly Rais, the author of “Mirat almamalik” and contemporary of the described events in Central Asia in 16century in its work described the activities of merchants making trade with other countries. Seid Aly Rais informs on “Tashkent” and “Turkestan” roads, which connected Buhara and Astrahan through Syrdariya towns and Saraichik. “Mihmanname-yae Buhara” of Ruzbihana has original information on external contacts of Kazakh at the beginning of 16 century, on the state of the towns of Turkestan, Sygnak, Sairam and their roles in political, economic and cultural life of both nomads and settled population of Central Asia. According to Ruzbihan the town Sygnak at the beginning of XYI was a “harbor of Desht-i Kypchak” where goods from Volga region, Maverannahra, Kashgar, Hotan and China were brought. “Goods and precious items were delivered to the town Yassy and deals were taken place there and it (the town) was a place of shipping cargoes of merchants and place of departure of group of travelers to countries”[8]. Numerous finds of coins in Ort, Gassy (Turkestan), Tashkent, Buhara, Samarkand demonstrated the development of political and trade contacts of the nations of Central Asia[9].
The issues of history of trade of Kazakhstan with neighboring countries in 16-18 centuries attract historians not only due to poor knowledge of this issues but also to the fact that these two centuries are expressly characterized with historical and geographical specific features of this trade which still active in our days. There are documentary information in the Archive of external politics of Russia, funds “Kyrgyz-kaisas affairs”, “Nagai affairs” in Persian speaking compositions “Sharaf-name-yie-shahy”of Haphiz Tanysha, “Bahr al-asrar” of Makhmyd ibn Valy, “Akbar-name” etc. In this respect it should be noted that along with information on the history of Middle Asia there is information on the history of Kazakh.
As it is known, in 16 in the Northern India the empire of Great Moguls appeared. At this period great traditions of cultural exchange and contacts of Central Asia with the empire of Great Moguls were existed. Central Asia played a specific role in promotion of achievements of Indian culture, many cultural values of which were spread to neighbo(u)ring countries including Kazakhstan. From the beginning of 16 century Indian merchants from the Northern India started spreading trade to the north: to Afghanistan, Iran, Central Asia and Kazakhstan. A new aspect of interrelations of Kazakhstan and India in 16-18 centuries which has not been studied so far is also very important. The specific feature of Kazakh and Indian trade was that it was combined with intermediary of Central Asian, Indian and Afghan merchants. Kazakh people mainly sold livestock which they transferred through Central Asia to India. Many horses were among goods transferred to the directions of caravan way. A significant amount of horses were brought to India from Buhara, especially horses of Kazakh breed were appreciated. There are documentary evidences that Kazakh merchants drove by 40 thousand horses to India[10].
The interrelation of Kazakh khanate with Central Asian khanates was various. The period of military collisions was replaced with periods of good-neighborly relations during which a caravan trade was developing.
Through this research the history of diplomatic relations of the Kazakh Khanate with neighboring countries was also reconstructed on the basis of information contained in oriental sources and materials from archives
The analysis of different categories of manuscripts, deeds, stamps, titled coins lead to interesting conclusions. For instance, based on Persian, Turkic and Chinese writings we have investigated the external policy of Kazakh khans, and this resulted in the conclusion that Kazakh khans were actively involved in international politics and used all means and methods of peaceful settlement of international disputes through bilateral treaties, international agreements, dynastic marriages, negotiations, embassies, and etc.
In the sources of 16-18 centuries there is information on diplomatic negotiations between Kazakh khans, Hiva, Buhara, Kokand etc. From the end of 16-18 century there is an intensive exchange of Russian and Kazakh embassies.
The above named trade ways between Kazakh khanate and Central Asia and Russia played a great role in economic life of population of those regions through which they were passing. Kazakh people were suppliers of camels and horses for caravans, artisans of neighboring settlements and steppes supplied caravans with necessary products. Kazakh, Turkmen and others were mainly hired as guide and guard.
In large cities caravan-sheds were placed as focus of coming merchants, a place for making deals and storing goods. “Rauzat ar-rizvan” states that in some caravan-sheds saydagery (traders) and tydzhary (merchants) from Iran, Arabian countries and from all over the world came to make commercial transactions8.
On the basis of fragmentary, odd, accidental information of oriental sources and materials of Chinese and Russian archives, the history of diplomatic relations of the Kazakh Khanate with neighbouring countries was reconstructed.
Already in the 16th c., the Kazakh Khanate moved forward among the states of countries of Central Asia. After the hard undergone period of 1570s—1580s, the Kazakh Khanate strengthened its external policy. It gained special scope in the time of Hakk-Hazar-khan, Shigay, Tauekel, Ishim, especially after the events of 1598—1599; Ablay-khan and others.
The analysis of different categories of manuscripts, deeds, stamps, titled coins lead to interesting conclusions. On the basis of Persian, Turkic and Chinese writings such as “Sharaf name-i shahy”, “Tarih-i alamary‑i Abbasy”, “Bahr al-asrar”, etc. the treaties, international agreements, dynastic marriages, negotiations, embassies, all those definite means and methods of peace settlements of international disputes taken place in external policy of Kazakh khans were investigated.
The external policy of the Kazakh Khanate was actualized by two traditional methods: peace and war. If the khan-governors achieved mutual confidence the peace treaties were signed. A concluded treaty was ratified by two methods: swears or guarantees and bails. The sources allows to distinguish three types of treaties.
The first type supposed the achievement of peace when the khan with his forces set out on the side of his partner. Partial military support was also possible — transfer of some detached forces headed by the military leaders or sultan. The second type of treaty provided for payment of tribute. A special type of peace treaty was mentioned, which was confirmed by conjugal unions and the payments were considered only in the future. The third type was connected with some concessions — territory or the right for tribute collection.
Different types of treaties appropriate to the character of relations between partners existed. In particular, the treaty between Hakk-Hazar-khan and Abdallah, Tauekel and Abdallah was determined by contractors as the establishment of friendship.
In the external policy of the Kazakh Khanate an important role was played by ambassadors, diplomats, envoys etc. Regular exchange of ambassadors and messages of diplomatic character, periodical meetings of governors were considered as the evidence of good relations between countries.
Describing the issue of historical-cultural cooperation of Kazakhstan with Central Asian countries we used systematic approach to the selection of sources that gave us the opportunity to consider the materials from different points of view and differently comprehend them. Critical analysis was made of separate biases of essay where social phenomena are described, life of foreign nations receives an inferior approach with a shade of superiority of one nation above the others.
On the basis of a large complex of sources the problems of many-sided contacts of the Kazakhs with the Uzbeks, the Kyrgyzs, the Kalmyks, the Karakalpaks and other nations were investigated; the historic events of the Central Asian region were reconstructed. Newly discovered sources give us the opportunity to reconstruct the complicated kaleidoscopic process of political, economic and cultural life of the Kazakh nation and draw indissoluble connections with thehistory not only Central Asia, Eastern Turkistan, Jungaria but also Iran, India, Russia.
The culture of one nation or region whatever it would be separate, specific and independent to some extent feels the influence of other cultures contacted or neighbouring. As the ethnic history is an interrelated process, it is difficult to separate artificially the history of one nation from others.
Historical connections of the Kazakh nation with bordering nations lie depth of centuries. They were expressed in external policies as well as in mutual trade. A wide range of materials on the history of trade, trade routes and expeditions to the Kazakh steppe reaffirm the fact that Kazakhstan was a connecting link, a bridge of mutual influence and mutual enrichment between Western and Eastern cultures. Even since the XII century one of the most used trade routes was the route from China to the West, which ran through the Zhetisu, Southern Kazakhstan and functioned in the orbit of the Great Silk Road.
It is defined that beginning with the second half of the XVI century this route has experienced a new impulse in its development. The written historical sources of the XVI–XVII centuries have made it known that during the same period trade routes connecting China, India and Central Asia were established in Kazakhstan. These routes were used by pilgrims, trade caravans and military groups. Historic and cultural contacts intertwined with definite historical (political, military, social and etc.) events, which are described and supported by archeological findings, oral and written sources. The materials discovered lately by the oriental archeographical expeditions represent a serious contribution to the historical source base and contain a lot of new data on the history of medieval relations between Kazakhstan and Oriental countries.
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A wide range of materials on the history of trade, trade routes and expeditions to the Kazakh steppe reaffirm the fact that Kazakhstan was a connecting link, a bridge of mutual influence and mutual enrichment between Western and Eastern cultures. It would be utterly wrong to neglect the great importance of Western travelers for studying of the history of our region.
There are many sources yet to be addressed. One of these untouched history sources is the Fund of Swiss traveler Henry Moser (1844-1923), who traveled to Kazakhstan and Central Asia multiple times in the 80’s of the XIX century. The outcome of those expeditions was presented in his memoirs. H. Moser chose to cross the Kazakh steppe along the Orenburg-Orsk-Qazalinsk-Tashkent route.
During his voyage he made observations, met local rulers, made notes and scrupulously described the economy, the culture and the everyday life of the Kazakhs. He made sketches of nature, housing, clothing, as well as other notes on his memories of acquaintances with distinct people of the steppe, on stories about rich tradition and customs of Kazakh nation. Henry Moser was hospitably met in different auls (villages). He was presented with expensive presents, swords, carpets, horse riding utensils.
The Henry Moser Fund has preserved many oriental manuscripts, historic photographs, valuable ethnographic and numismatic artifacts, which were of great value for studying not only the history and culture of Kazakh nation, but also the history of relations of Kazakhstan with the countries of Central Asia, Russia, China, Iran and India.
The exhibits, found and studied in the fund of the Swiss Historical Museum in Bern represent a special informational value for more accurate assessment of historical and cultural heritage of Kazakh nation. Many XIX century rarities substantially supplement the known political history of Kazakhstan as well as represent perfect examples of Kazakh fine arts. Some of those are in single exemplar and have no analogues in museum collections of Kazakhstan. There are many categories of objects collected, like wall friezes, clothing elements, and belts with brackets, quivers, weapons and women jewelry. One of the outstanding exhibits is a long wall frieze (“Kiiz Uyding Arqalighi”) that contains different application patterns, which reflect the hierarchy of the Kazakh society. This is a novella for researchers in the field of Kazakh material culture. It is also quite important that these objects were pictured in the XIX century in real everyday life environment, which substantially support our efforts in understanding of the history of that period. This collection contains a number of exhibits of foreign ethnic character, which were used in Kazakh environment. This fact, in turn, proves the existence of wide diplomatic, trade, economic and cultural interconnections of Kazakh nation with bordering countries.
Thus, the data of medieval Kazakh sources creates the basis for the interpretation of intricate evidence about medieval history. There is no doubt that the sources, diverse material of political, social-economic, cultural history of medieval Kazakhstan are very important. Researchers are now faced with the great work of selection and interpretation of external and local (internal) sources of the Kazakh history. Top priority is still the search for manuscripts. Another pressing problem is the research and recording of verbal legends, still existing among people. Historians will have to make intensive and careful work of comparing the sources. All the complex of the study of new sources, development of questions is an essential stage in the research of important problems of Kazakh statehood, and nomad studies in general.
References:
[1] A. Urunbaev, R. P. Dzhalilova, L. M. Epifanova. 1996. Mirza Muhammad Khaidar. Tarih-i Rashidi. Introduction. Translation from the Persian. Tashkent. 106.
[2] Ibragimov S. K. 1960. About the term “kazakh”. In Proceedings of the KazSSR’s Academy of Science. 8: 71.
[3] V.L. Vyatkin. Sheikhs of Djubariy // V.V.Bartold – Turkistani friends, followers and admirers. Tashkent 1927, compositions. p. 6-7.
[4] P.P. Ivanov. Archive of Khivin khans of XIX century. Researches and descriptions of documents with historical introduction. L., 1940. Documents # 128, 129. p. 208-209.
[5] A. Jenkins. English travelers in Moscow state in XVI century. p. 35
[6] A.A. Semenov Unique monument of hagiographic Central-Asian literature of XVI century // АS Uz.SSR. 1940. # 12. p. 52-62; B.B. Bartold. Kyrgyz: historical sketch //Comp. М., 1963. V. 2. P. 2. p. 516-517.
[7] Ziyaev H.Z. Economic links of Middle Asia with Siberia in XYI=XIX centuries, Tashkent, 1983
[8] Vyatkin V.L. Sheiks Zhubairy//V.V. Bartold – Turkestan friends, pupils and admirers, Tashkent, 1927, p.6.
[9] Mustaphina R.M. Images, cults, and rites of Kazakh people: (In the context of common Islam in Southern Kazakhstan at the end of XIX-XX centuries). Almaty, 1992.
[10] Ubaidulla-name, p.166
8 Badr ad-Din Kashmiri Rauzat ar-rizvan… L.294 ab.
The history has kept man pondering for quite long. This is even more true when one is to study of nomadic history and culture, where the answers are cloaked by the laws and traditions of the great steppe.
The history of Kazakhstan and especially the history of statehood of Kazakhstan is one that encompasses a number of great epochs and formed by wars, sensitive diplomatic relations, deeply rooted traditions, balance of power and trade cooperation.
Unfortunately recent researches assessed historic events with big deal of tendency or treated particular problems going way beyond the framework of historical science and even beyond the history of nations and ethnos of Eurasia.
Currently historical science faces paramount problems requiring new approaches for their resolution, new understanding of the historical process and creation of a new historical thinking, approach to the study of the problems of state system, nomadic period, problems of contact of nomadic and settled cultures, their history and culture. This was implemented in the research which I have the honor to present.
Prologue to the Emergence of Kazakh Khanate.
The question of emergence of the Kazakh khans dynasty and inter-relative relationships between them cannot be answered without examining the history of Golden Orda and state institutions, that developed on the ruins of the latter. There are a lot of historical sources which disclose the genealogy of Djuchi descendants, predecessors of Kazakh khans. The issues concerning the collapse of Golden Orda, the struggle for power between Djuchi descendants, the actions of Abulkhair khan and the emergence of Kazakh khanate are described differently in historical schools.
It is known that the formation of Kazakh khanate is connected to the struggle between Djuchids during the epoch of collapse of Golden Orda. It is necessary to point out that it were only the descendants of Hsaiban and Tuka-Tumur, who fought for the “summum imperium”. By that time the descendants of Orda-Edjen had already stepped off the historical arena. However, this circumstance was not clearly described in the historical sources, which, in turn, led to erroneous assignation of some historical figures of XIV-XV centuries to the descendants of Orda-Edjen.
Sources
Written Persian, Turkic and Chinese sources are main on the history of Kazakshtan 15–18 centuries. The history of Desht-I Kipchak, Djetysu, Maverannahr, Eastern Turkestan is closely connected with each other. This is the history of important social phenomena of 15-18 centuries caused by internal and external factors of economic development.
By our opinion the historical sources can be divided into two groups: the internal one and the external one.
The external sources are those written by the authors of the neighboring countries of Central Asia as well as Near, Middle and Far East. They were written in Persian, Arabic, Chinese etc. In the period under our study the Islamic historical tradition considerably influenced the perception of history by Inner Asia’s Turkic ethnoses. However, this tradition is known to be highly biased, describing the historical past in one-sided manner, and hence appears as some alien view on the history in the eyes of non-nomads.
The internal sources are those that come out of own historical tradition of the Central Asian peoples. This kind of sources can also be divided into two groups: 1) those written sources that had been formed out during various periods and in various sites of Turkic world; 2) those that are still passed on only in oral form.
Concerning the first group of the internal sources, the works that were written on the basis of oral historical tradition of certain clan and tribal units of that time such as “Chinghiz-namah” by Utemish-hajji, «Jami‘ al-tawarikh» by Qadir-‘Ali Jala’iri, «Shajara-yi turk» by Abu’l-Ghazi Bahadur-khan can be mentioned. While the historical legends (qara-söz), the tribal genealogies (shejire), the heroic eposes (dastan) and the elegies dedicated to certain heroes (zhoqtau) etc., can be included into the second group.
There is a special group of written sources on the history of Central Asian Turkic nomads – the sources which brought to us an oral nomadic historical knowledge. This entered into scientific use in the term of a “steppe oral historiography”, or a “steppe oral historiology”.
Based on an unique information – data of the very individual subject on the history of his own past – the steppe oral historiology has not less, and sometimes even more important value for understanding of social-and-political processes. Here should be emphasized the ultimate importance of oral tradition in compare with written testimonies, as oral tradition have been entirely proved by written sources or, that is even more important, by the state principles of newly created formations. “Chinghiz-namah” contains the important data on political institutes of the medieval Central Asian states. Among them khans as possesors of the supreme political authority, oghlans and beks are mentioned. Among the various political structures the majlises – assemblies of Chinghisids and patrimonial nobles – played a special role. It also should be mentioned that nobody would call in question the conclusions that sources of actually Turkic origin, among which oral legends, heroic epos and shajara prevailed, have a decisive role in studying of the history and culture of these nations.
According to the opinion that has being developed by the great and unfortunately quite underestimated Kazakh scholars such as Mashhur-Jusip Kopeyev the oral historical tradition is very important for reconstructing a more objective and vivid history of Central Asian nomadic word. They think that, although the written historical sources of the neighboring sedentary people play a key role in making out the outline of the history of Central Asia, but those sources don not always reveal the inner process of the formation of the Central Asian nomadic society, of their culture and their value.
The statehood of Turkic nomads was characterized by presence of traditional ways of management and military-administrative system of historical predecessors of Chingizids empire.
It is reasonably interesting to note that ancient Mongolian custom of election of the new khan was kept approximately in the same form among Kazakhs and Uzbeks of Central Asia up to the end of XIX century.
One may get the perception of the way how ancient Turik nomads identified themselves. Their thinking were majorly influenced by a single concept of “Birtutas Turki Eli” (Unified Turkic State), which emerged as far back as the time of unification under a blue banner of Turks-commanders and rulers – Kutlug, Bil’ge-kagan, Kjul’-tegin, Ton’jukuk, and later continued by such thinkers as Balasaguni, Jasavi, Kashgari, Nava’i.
Recent discoveries and complex studies of historical sources, comparative analysis of various information lead to reconsideration of the real character of historical events. During the most recent oriental archeographical expeditions in 2004-2008 to foreign archives, funds, libraries and museums conducted with the aid of the “Cultural Heritage” State Program we have acquired unique materials which have created a solid base for a large group of researchers to reconstruct the ancient and medieval history of the Kazakh nation.
From 2004 till 2008, the oriental archeological researches were conducted under the “Cultural Heritage” State Program in Russian Federation, China, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey, Armenia, Hungary, France and Switzerland. The results of those archeological expeditions were included into a number of books published under the Program. They have created a solid base for a large group of researchers to reconstruct the ancient and medieval history of the Kazakh nation. It is intended to use different points of view and encompass new information from well and less known sources. At the same time it is planned to use information from different historical and literary works that Kazakh historical science was not familiar with earlier and that represent special value for studying the formation of a national idea and spiritual culture of the Kazakh nation. This is the first time, when a definite complex of historical sources, which reflect all the stages of historical development and cultural traditions of the Kazakh nation is introduced.
The materials acquired during last oriental archeological expeditions in 2004-2008 from foreign archives, funds, libraries and museums are unique. During the first period (2004-2006) there was a series of books published, including “The History of Kazakhstan in Persian Sources” (5 volumes), “The History of Kazakhstan in Turkic Sources” (5 volumes), “The History of Kazakhstan in Chinese Sources” (5 volumes), “The History of Kazakhstan in Mongolian Sources” (3 volumes), “The History of Kazakhstan in Arabic Sources” (3 volumes). At present we are preparing to publish new books under the “Cultural Heritage” State Program.
Thanks to the “Cultural Heritage” State Program, Kazakh historians had discovered unique documents in The First Historical Archives of China, including 300 in Chaghatay and Chinese languages and more importantly more than 3000 in Manchurian, containing official letters of Kazakh Khans and Sultans addressed to the rulers of bordering regions, and information on diplomatic ties and trade between Kazakhs and Chinese. We have also discovered numerous documents containing information on diplomatic relations of Kazakhs with Chinese, Russians, Kyrgyz, Kokands and Oirats, as well as other information on everyday life and tradition of past Kazakhs. These unique archives prove that Kazakh rulers had their own chancellery and that they were active participants of diplomatic relations exchanging correspondence and ambassadors.
A wide range of materials on the history of trade, trade routes and expeditions to the Kazakh steppe reaffirm the fact that Kazakhstan was a connecting link, a bridge of mutual influence and mutual enrichment between Western and Eastern cultures. It would be utterly wrong to neglect the great importance of Western travellers for studying of the history of our region.
In this presentation a new approach to the study of Kazakh statehood is suggested. New evidence allowed us to reinterpret the history and to acquire more information on political, social, cultural events and we tried to reconstruct the main stages of the history of Kazakh society.
In most oriental writings which describe the historical events of the Kazakh Khanate the terms “mamlakat-i Kazakh”, “ulus-i Kazakh”, “doulat-i Kazakh” are very common.
In connection with it, important data of oriental writings were examined about the state of khan power and its relations with aristocracy, the form of entitling the right for city management, about monetary reform, legislation of khans, spread of Islam and land grants of Juibar Sheikhs to Kazakh khans and sultans.
Kazakh Khanate and the First Rulers
15-17 cenrures – the time of appearance of Great powers such as Ottoman’s, Sefevid’s Impires, the state of Great Mogols, of the Shaibanids, Ashtarkhanids, Kazakh Khanate and etc. In the mid XV century Kerei and Jhanibek, having united many Djuchids and dependant tribes under their rule, took them to Mogulistan. The departure of kazakh Kerei and Zhanibek had been a very important part of the political chain, that led to formation of Kazakh Khanate. Information on this point first appeared in “Tarikhi-Rashidi”.
Muhammad Khaidar in his “Tarikhi-Rashidi” states the following: at that time the Desht-i-Kypchak was ruled by Abulkhair Khan. Zhanibek and Kerei Khan ran from him to Mogulistan. He caused many trouble to sultans of Djuchi origin. Isan-Buga Khan greeted them with respect and gave them the regions of Shu and Kozy-Bashi, that laid in the west Mogulistan. While they prospered there, the Uzbek ulus became disorganized after the death of Abulkhair Khan. A lot of conflicts emerged. Most of his subjects went to Kerei Khan and Zhanibek Khan and the number of people who gathered around them had reached two hundred thousands. They were called uzbek-kazakhs. The beginning of the Kazakh Sultan reign is eight hundred seventieth year (870 year by Khidjira = 1465//1466 – M.A.), but the Allah knows better”[1].
The formation of Kazakh khanate was not connected exceptionally to the move of Kerei and Jhanibek. It was conditioned by the economical, social and political development of Kazakhstan in middle ages and by some particularities of the ethnical history of Kazakhs. From the second half of XV century to the beginning of the XVI century the name of “Kazakh” appeared: “in the end of the XV century the word “Kazakh” acquires a political meaning. It was used to describe some feudal possessions, created by the descendants of Barak, i.e. Zhanibek. Kerei, Burundyk. From the beginning if XVI century, after a part of nomadic tribes led by Sheibani Kahn moved from the territtory of contemporary Kazakhstan to Mauverranakhr, the term “kazakh” starts to become more ethnic”[2].
The end of XVI-XVII is a very special period in the history of Kazakhstan. It was the time of strengthening of the Kazakh statehood, the time of active political, military, cultural relations and trade with neighboring states and nations. At that time the Kazakh ruled Tashkent, Turkestan, Sauran, Andijan, that were permanently fought for by Kazakh khans and Ashtakhanids. This period is the Renaissance in the history of Kazakh Khanate.
The sources contain evidence on the status of the khan’s authority and his relations with the aristocracy. For instance, it now has become clear that such measures as monetary reforms were conducted in order to strengthen the authority of the khan. The money circulation had a positive effect on the strengthening of khanate power and encouraged trade relations with neighboring countries and ethnic groups. The money circulation had a positive affect on the strengthening of khanate power and encouraged trade connections with neighbour countries and nations. From 16th c. the role of capitals as state centers of coining money had been rising (for instance coinage of Tursun-Muhammed-khan, Tauekel-khan etc.)
The legislation of Kasym-khan, Hakk-Nazar-khan, Ishim-khan and Tauke-khan were aimed at the development of statehood and at strengthening of internal foundations of Kazakh society
Through this research the history of diplomatic relations of the Kazakh Khanate with neighboring countries was also reconstructed on the basis of information contained in oriental sources and materials from archives
The analysis of different categories of manuscripts, deeds, stamps, titled coins lead to interesting conclusions. For instance, based on Persian, Turkic and Chinese writings we have investigated the external policy of Kazakh khans, and this resulted in the conclusion that Kazakh khans were actively involved in international politics and used all means and methods of peaceful settlement of international disputes through bilateral treaties, international agreements, dynastic marriages, negotiations, embassies, and etc.
***
The dissemination of Islam during this period is considered to be factor which brought to strengthening of authority of a khan. In particular, Djuybar sheikhs played a significant role in a political life of the Kazakh society in XVI-XVII centuries, and supported Kazakh khans in all state affairs. The knowledge about the ideology of the Kazakh society in XVI-XVII centuries, its shaman views and cults, the ways of penetration and dissemination of Islam and activity among Kazakhs of Central-Asian Sufist orders, the quests of a refuge in nomads’ camps of Kazakh khans by Central-Asian sheikhs, and the fact that Kazakhs were Murids of Central-Asian sheikhs are of a great significance in the Oriental historical materials. The Kazakh khans carried out an active policy of taking a loyal position concerning some Sufist Orders, supporting them in a counterbalance with others, basing on and using them for their purposes. We even know the name of a religious figure from the environment of Kazakhs of XVI century Maulan Muhammad Kazakh Rabateghi (“Syradg al-Salkiman” Muhammad Rakim).
The Central Asian Sufist peers and their agents acted as missionaries of Islam. They pursued the purpose of increasing a number of Murids and their incomes.
A number of hagiographic compositions contain significant materials that describe the life of peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, their clan-tribe structure, beliefs, political history, tell about missionary activity of Hoja Ishac who preached Sufist doctrines of Nashbandija order among the Kazakhs. The Islamization of Kazakhs promoted strengthening of the union of Kazakh governors with spiritual and secular Central-Asian representatives on ideological basis. It is known, for example, that in 1512 future well-known Djuybar sheikh Islam escaped from Babur and Kyzylbash to Kazakh khan Kasym and stayed with him for a quite long time.[3] However, after Babur was defeated, and the rest of Kyzylbash ran from Maverannakhr, and rumors about them began to fade, Hoja Islam went back to Buchara. At this time, a nephew of Muhammad-Shaban-khan, who defeated Babyr and Kyzylbash and became the governor of Bukhara, sent ambassadors to Kasym to ask for his’ daughter hand. Kasym-khan agreed to send his daughter to Buchara under the charge of Hoja Islam. That was when Hoja returned to his homeland.
We found and investigated a number of documents on sale and purchase of land and on the lands granted by descendants of Djuybar sheikhs. Documents of later period from the archives of Khivin khans that present full material on landed property and taxation of Kazakhsare of great value. Such documents contain lists of Kazakhs covering 1200 farms and facilities, data about property, social and clan-tribe structure of tax bearers; distribution of the population in separate areas, and their number.[4]
As we have already specified, Djuybar sheikhs played a significant role in a political life of the society of that time, and had a large influence among Murids. An English traveler A. Jenkins who visited Buchara in 1559 told about political influence of a powerful head of Buchara clergy. He wrote: “ In Buchara, there is a spiritual head. He is listened to more than a king. He can displace a king and put another by his will and desire”.[5]
For example, undertaking campaign to Central Asia in 1598-1599 Taukel-khan relied not only on weapons; he counted on certain social layers of the population of Central Asia that rendered him support when he needed it. Muhammad Avaz in his “Ziya al-kulub” tells about aspiration of Taukel to win inclination of Central-Asian Sufist peers of Nakshbandija order, in order to get further support.
Many experts consider that in XV-XVI centuries, shamanism and various pagan cults were disseminated among Kazakhs, and Islam was not distributed widely yet. It is quite fair in general, but it is also necessary to specify that Islam took roots first in the environment of the Kazakh khans and sultans. Acceptance of Islam should prove that Kazakh khans searching for strong social support in the face of influential Moslem clergy and Sufist corporations.
“Ziya al-kulub” informs that Sufist gobs were interested in expansion of sources of their incomes, conducted active propaganda of doctrines among nomads-Kazakhs, and called them to be Murids. The fact that Kazakh Muhammad who preached Sufism among Kazakhs and Kyrgyz was among followers of Nakshbandija sheikh Lutfuli Chusti (he was killed in 1571/72) proved propaganda to be successful. This message is contained in the Life of Lutfuli Chusti.[6] These terrestrial cares forced spiritual leaders of Sufist corporations to develop good relations with Kazakh khans and sultans and help them.
XVI-XVII centuries represent a special period in history of Kazakhstan: time of the strengthening of Kazakh statehood, active political, trade, and cultural relations between Kazakhs and neighboring countries and peoples.
****
The history of Kazakh people in 15-18 centuries in close and many-sided contacts with nations of Central Asia, the ways of their development, war conflicts were interrelated in the periods of cooperation.
They were expressed both external political relations and in mutual exchange trade. The interesting material on the history of trade, trade ways, expeditions to steppe regions proves that Kazakhstan was a connection, bridge on the way of interaction and mutual enrichment of cultures of the East and the West. In 16-18 centuries political and trade relations of Kazakhstan with khanates of Middle Asia, India, Afghanistan, Russia were expanded, the exchange of trade and diplomatic embassies was made. The exchange of embassies between Kazakhstan and these countries presented essentially a form of trade relations. Archaeological sources state that interstate and transit trade required a great amount of money of currency metals, i.e. silver and gold[7]. In 12 century the route from China to the West through Semirechiye and Southern Kazakhstan which was included into the orbit of the Great Silk Road became very brisk.
At present much attention is paid to the study of the Great Silk Road which crossed the territory of Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Moreover, starting from the second half of XYI this way got a new impulse of life. Written sources of 16-18 state that trade routes connecting China, India and Central Asia also crossed Kazakhstan; pilgrims and military groups passed through. Trade was made both by Caspian Sea between Astrahan and Mangyshlak and by land through the northern coast of the Caspian Sea, Buhara and Hiva. However, the information on the level and items of the trade in eastern sources are not available.
Nevertheless, the available information of eastern authors allows saying about regularity of trade relations. Actually, trade between Kazakh and neighboring nations was continuous even in times of discords and wars though the latter circumstance strongly hindered its development. Seid Aly Rais, the author of “Mirat almamalik” and contemporary of the described events in Central Asia in 16century in its work described the activities of merchants making trade with other countries. Seid Aly Rais informs on “Tashkent” and “Turkestan” roads, which connected Buhara and Astrahan through Syrdariya towns and Saraichik. “Mihmanname-yae Buhara” of Ruzbihana has original information on external contacts of Kazakh at the beginning of 16 century, on the state of the towns of Turkestan, Sygnak, Sairam and their roles in political, economic and cultural life of both nomads and settled population of Central Asia. According to Ruzbihan the town Sygnak at the beginning of XYI was a “harbor of Desht-i Kypchak” where goods from Volga region, Maverannahra, Kashgar, Hotan and China were brought. “Goods and precious items were delivered to the town Yassy and deals were taken place there and it (the town) was a place of shipping cargoes of merchants and place of departure of group of travelers to countries”[8]. Numerous finds of coins in Ort, Gassy (Turkestan), Tashkent, Buhara, Samarkand demonstrated the development of political and trade contacts of the nations of Central Asia[9].
The issues of history of trade of Kazakhstan with neighboring countries in 16-18 centuries attract historians not only due to poor knowledge of this issues but also to the fact that these two centuries are expressly characterized with historical and geographical specific features of this trade which still active in our days. There are documentary information in the Archive of external politics of Russia, funds “Kyrgyz-kaisas affairs”, “Nagai affairs” in Persian speaking compositions “Sharaf-name-yie-shahy”of Haphiz Tanysha, “Bahr al-asrar” of Makhmyd ibn Valy, “Akbar-name” etc. In this respect it should be noted that along with information on the history of Middle Asia there is information on the history of Kazakh.
As it is known, in 16 in the Northern India the empire of Great Moguls appeared. At this period great traditions of cultural exchange and contacts of Central Asia with the empire of Great Moguls were existed. Central Asia played a specific role in promotion of achievements of Indian culture, many cultural values of which were spread to neighbo(u)ring countries including Kazakhstan. From the beginning of 16 century Indian merchants from the Northern India started spreading trade to the north: to Afghanistan, Iran, Central Asia and Kazakhstan. A new aspect of interrelations of Kazakhstan and India in 16-18 centuries which has not been studied so far is also very important. The specific feature of Kazakh and Indian trade was that it was combined with intermediary of Central Asian, Indian and Afghan merchants. Kazakh people mainly sold livestock which they transferred through Central Asia to India. Many horses were among goods transferred to the directions of caravan way. A significant amount of horses were brought to India from Buhara, especially horses of Kazakh breed were appreciated. There are documentary evidences that Kazakh merchants drove by 40 thousand horses to India[10].
The interrelation of Kazakh khanate with Central Asian khanates was various. The period of military collisions was replaced with periods of good-neighborly relations during which a caravan trade was developing.
Through this research the history of diplomatic relations of the Kazakh Khanate with neighboring countries was also reconstructed on the basis of information contained in oriental sources and materials from archives
The analysis of different categories of manuscripts, deeds, stamps, titled coins lead to interesting conclusions. For instance, based on Persian, Turkic and Chinese writings we have investigated the external policy of Kazakh khans, and this resulted in the conclusion that Kazakh khans were actively involved in international politics and used all means and methods of peaceful settlement of international disputes through bilateral treaties, international agreements, dynastic marriages, negotiations, embassies, and etc.
In the sources of 16-18 centuries there is information on diplomatic negotiations between Kazakh khans, Hiva, Buhara, Kokand etc. From the end of 16-18 century there is an intensive exchange of Russian and Kazakh embassies.
The above named trade ways between Kazakh khanate and Central Asia and Russia played a great role in economic life of population of those regions through which they were passing. Kazakh people were suppliers of camels and horses for caravans, artisans of neighboring settlements and steppes supplied caravans with necessary products. Kazakh, Turkmen and others were mainly hired as guide and guard.
In large cities caravan-sheds were placed as focus of coming merchants, a place for making deals and storing goods. “Rauzat ar-rizvan” states that in some caravan-sheds saydagery (traders) and tydzhary (merchants) from Iran, Arabian countries and from all over the world came to make commercial transactions8.
On the basis of fragmentary, odd, accidental information of oriental sources and materials of Chinese and Russian archives, the history of diplomatic relations of the Kazakh Khanate with neighbouring countries was reconstructed.
Already in the 16th c., the Kazakh Khanate moved forward among the states of countries of Central Asia. After the hard undergone period of 1570s—1580s, the Kazakh Khanate strengthened its external policy. It gained special scope in the time of Hakk-Hazar-khan, Shigay, Tauekel, Ishim, especially after the events of 1598—1599; Ablay-khan and others.
The analysis of different categories of manuscripts, deeds, stamps, titled coins lead to interesting conclusions. On the basis of Persian, Turkic and Chinese writings such as “Sharaf name-i shahy”, “Tarih-i alamary‑i Abbasy”, “Bahr al-asrar”, etc. the treaties, international agreements, dynastic marriages, negotiations, embassies, all those definite means and methods of peace settlements of international disputes taken place in external policy of Kazakh khans were investigated.
The external policy of the Kazakh Khanate was actualized by two traditional methods: peace and war. If the khan-governors achieved mutual confidence the peace treaties were signed. A concluded treaty was ratified by two methods: swears or guarantees and bails. The sources allows to distinguish three types of treaties.
The first type supposed the achievement of peace when the khan with his forces set out on the side of his partner. Partial military support was also possible — transfer of some detached forces headed by the military leaders or sultan. The second type of treaty provided for payment of tribute. A special type of peace treaty was mentioned, which was confirmed by conjugal unions and the payments were considered only in the future. The third type was connected with some concessions — territory or the right for tribute collection.
Different types of treaties appropriate to the character of relations between partners existed. In particular, the treaty between Hakk-Hazar-khan and Abdallah, Tauekel and Abdallah was determined by contractors as the establishment of friendship.
In the external policy of the Kazakh Khanate an important role was played by ambassadors, diplomats, envoys etc. Regular exchange of ambassadors and messages of diplomatic character, periodical meetings of governors were considered as the evidence of good relations between countries.
Describing the issue of historical-cultural cooperation of Kazakhstan with Central Asian countries we used systematic approach to the selection of sources that gave us the opportunity to consider the materials from different points of view and differently comprehend them. Critical analysis was made of separate biases of essay where social phenomena are described, life of foreign nations receives an inferior approach with a shade of superiority of one nation above the others.
On the basis of a large complex of sources the problems of many-sided contacts of the Kazakhs with the Uzbeks, the Kyrgyzs, the Kalmyks, the Karakalpaks and other nations were investigated; the historic events of the Central Asian region were reconstructed. Newly discovered sources give us the opportunity to reconstruct the complicated kaleidoscopic process of political, economic and cultural life of the Kazakh nation and draw indissoluble connections with thehistory not only Central Asia, Eastern Turkistan, Jungaria but also Iran, India, Russia.
The culture of one nation or region whatever it would be separate, specific and independent to some extent feels the influence of other cultures contacted or neighbouring. As the ethnic history is an interrelated process, it is difficult to separate artificially the history of one nation from others.
Historical connections of the Kazakh nation with bordering nations lie depth of centuries. They were expressed in external policies as well as in mutual trade. A wide range of materials on the history of trade, trade routes and expeditions to the Kazakh steppe reaffirm the fact that Kazakhstan was a connecting link, a bridge of mutual influence and mutual enrichment between Western and Eastern cultures. Even since the XII century one of the most used trade routes was the route from China to the West, which ran through the Zhetisu, Southern Kazakhstan and functioned in the orbit of the Great Silk Road.
It is defined that beginning with the second half of the XVI century this route has experienced a new impulse in its development. The written historical sources of the XVI–XVII centuries have made it known that during the same period trade routes connecting China, India and Central Asia were established in Kazakhstan. These routes were used by pilgrims, trade caravans and military groups. Historic and cultural contacts intertwined with definite historical (political, military, social and etc.) events, which are described and supported by archeological findings, oral and written sources. The materials discovered lately by the oriental archeographical expeditions represent a serious contribution to the historical source base and contain a lot of new data on the history of medieval relations between Kazakhstan and Oriental countries.
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A wide range of materials on the history of trade, trade routes and expeditions to the Kazakh steppe reaffirm the fact that Kazakhstan was a connecting link, a bridge of mutual influence and mutual enrichment between Western and Eastern cultures. It would be utterly wrong to neglect the great importance of Western travelers for studying of the history of our region.
There are many sources yet to be addressed. One of these untouched history sources is the Fund of Swiss traveler Henry Moser (1844-1923), who traveled to Kazakhstan and Central Asia multiple times in the 80’s of the XIX century. The outcome of those expeditions was presented in his memoirs. H. Moser chose to cross the Kazakh steppe along the Orenburg-Orsk-Qazalinsk-Tashkent route.
During his voyage he made observations, met local rulers, made notes and scrupulously described the economy, the culture and the everyday life of the Kazakhs. He made sketches of nature, housing, clothing, as well as other notes on his memories of acquaintances with distinct people of the steppe, on stories about rich tradition and customs of Kazakh nation. Henry Moser was hospitably met in different auls (villages). He was presented with expensive presents, swords, carpets, horse riding utensils.
The Henry Moser Fund has preserved many oriental manuscripts, historic photographs, valuable ethnographic and numismatic artifacts, which were of great value for studying not only the history and culture of Kazakh nation, but also the history of relations of Kazakhstan with the countries of Central Asia, Russia, China, Iran and India.
The exhibits, found and studied in the fund of the Swiss Historical Museum in Bern represent a special informational value for more accurate assessment of historical and cultural heritage of Kazakh nation. Many XIX century rarities substantially supplement the known political history of Kazakhstan as well as represent perfect examples of Kazakh fine arts. Some of those are in single exemplar and have no analogues in museum collections of Kazakhstan. There are many categories of objects collected, like wall friezes, clothing elements, and belts with brackets, quivers, weapons and women jewelry. One of the outstanding exhibits is a long wall frieze (“Kiiz Uyding Arqalighi”) that contains different application patterns, which reflect the hierarchy of the Kazakh society. This is a novella for researchers in the field of Kazakh material culture. It is also quite important that these objects were pictured in the XIX century in real everyday life environment, which substantially support our efforts in understanding of the history of that period. This collection contains a number of exhibits of foreign ethnic character, which were used in Kazakh environment. This fact, in turn, proves the existence of wide diplomatic, trade, economic and cultural interconnections of Kazakh nation with bordering countries.
Thus, the data of medieval Kazakh sources creates the basis for the interpretation of intricate evidence about medieval history. There is no doubt that the sources, diverse material of political, social-economic, cultural history of medieval Kazakhstan are very important. Researchers are now faced with the great work of selection and interpretation of external and local (internal) sources of the Kazakh history. Top priority is still the search for manuscripts. Another pressing problem is the research and recording of verbal legends, still existing among people. Historians will have to make intensive and careful work of comparing the sources. All the complex of the study of new sources, development of questions is an essential stage in the research of important problems of Kazakh statehood, and nomad studies in general.
References:
[1] A. Urunbaev, R. P. Dzhalilova, L. M. Epifanova. 1996. Mirza Muhammad Khaidar. Tarih-i Rashidi. Introduction. Translation from the Persian. Tashkent. 106.
[2] Ibragimov S. K. 1960. About the term “kazakh”. In Proceedings of the KazSSR’s Academy of Science. 8: 71.
[3] V.L. Vyatkin. Sheikhs of Djubariy // V.V.Bartold – Turkistani friends, followers and admirers. Tashkent 1927, compositions. p. 6-7.
[4] P.P. Ivanov. Archive of Khivin khans of XIX century. Researches and descriptions of documents with historical introduction. L., 1940. Documents # 128, 129. p. 208-209.
[5] A. Jenkins. English travelers in Moscow state in XVI century. p. 35
[6] A.A. Semenov Unique monument of hagiographic Central-Asian literature of XVI century // АS Uz.SSR. 1940. # 12. p. 52-62; B.B. Bartold. Kyrgyz: historical sketch //Comp. М., 1963. V. 2. P. 2. p. 516-517.
[7] Ziyaev H.Z. Economic links of Middle Asia with Siberia in XYI=XIX centuries, Tashkent, 1983
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[9] Mustaphina R.M. Images, cults, and rites of Kazakh people: (In the context of common Islam in Southern Kazakhstan at the end of XIX-XX centuries). Almaty, 1992.
[10] Ubaidulla-name, p.166
8 Badr ad-Din Kashmiri Rauzat ar-rizvan… L.294 ab.
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